The most legendary explorers who changed history
- Paul Aage Hegvik
- Feb 12
- 41 min read
Updated: Mar 16
Exploration has shaped human history, from ancient trade routes to the discovery of new continents and the mapping of uncharted territories.
These explorers shaped the modern world, charting new lands, opening trade routes, and forging connections between distant peoples. While their voyages led to knowledge and progress, they also had profound and often devastating consequences for indigenous populations. Their legacies remain a crucial part of world history.
Forever changed the world
The Age of Exploration brought forth some of the most famous figures in history—men who crossed oceans, mapped unknown lands, and forever changed the world. From Marco Polo and Zheng He to Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Henry the Navigator, and Ferdinand Magellan, these explorers reshaped global trade, culture, and geography.
Their journeys led to the discovery of new lands (at least from a European or Chinese perspective), the exchange of goods and ideas, and the beginnings of modern globalization. Today, their legacies are visible in the languages, borders, economies, and cultural exchanges that define our world.
Suffered immense consequences
However, their impact was not solely one of progress and discovery. Indigenous peoples in the Americas, Africa, and Asia suffered immense consequences, including land dispossession, forced conversions, and catastrophic population decline due to violence, slavery, and disease. Some explorers, like Columbus and da Gama, were directly involved in acts of extreme cruelty—ordering massacres, enslaving entire communities, and laying the foundations for European colonial empires built on exploitation.
Burned 300 muslims
Vasco da Gama. In 1502, during his second voyage to India, he encountered a ship filled with Muslim pilgrims returning from Mecca. Da Gama ordered the vessel, the Merii, to be set on fire while its 300 passengers—men, women, and children—were still inside. Most of them perished in the flames or drowned while trying to escape. This act of extreme cruelty was part of his campaign to establish Portuguese dominance over the Indian Ocean trade routes and to intimidate Muslim traders in the region.
This massacre, along with other brutal actions by European explorers, highlights the darker side of the Age of Exploration, where trade and conquest often went hand in hand with violence and cruelty.
Some of the worst tragedies
The Massacre at Cholula (1519)
During Hernán Cortés’s conquest of the Aztec Empire, he ordered the killing of thousands of unarmed Cholulan nobles and civilians. Spanish forces, along with their indigenous allies, slaughtered men, women, and children in one of the most brutal massacres of the conquest.
The Destruction of the Taíno People (1492–1500s)
Christopher Columbus and his men enslaved, tortured, and executed thousands of Taíno people in the Caribbean. Forced labor, violence, and European diseases reduced their population from hundreds of thousands to near extinction within a few decades.
The Calicut Massacre (1502)
Vasco da Gama showed extreme cruelty when he captured a ship filled with Muslim pilgrims returning from Mecca. He locked hundreds of men, women, and children inside and then set the ship on fire, killing them all. Later, he ordered mass executions of prisoners in Calicut (modern Kozhikode, India).
The Magellan Expedition’s Atrocities (1521)
While attempting to convert and subjugate the indigenous people of the Philippines, Ferdinand Magellan engaged in violent conflicts, including the burning of villages. He was ultimately killed in the Battle of Mactan, but his expedition continued acts of violence against local populations.
Heroes or villains?
Can these men be considered heroes? That depends on the perspective. To some, they are pioneers who pushed the limits of human knowledge. To others, they are symbols of conquest, oppression, and the darker side of history. Their voyages are a reminder that exploration and expansion often come at a cost—one that continues to shape the world today.
These 10 explorers embarked on daring voyages, expanding the boundaries of knowledge and changing the course of history.
Marco Polo: The Venetian traveler of the Silk Road
Marco Polo (1254–1324) was a Venetian explorer whose travels through Asia left a lasting impact on global history.
His detailed account, The Travels of Marco Polo, introduced Europe to the wonders of China and the Mongol Empire. His journey lasted over two decades, covering vast territories, from the Middle East to the heart of Asia.
Early life and family background
Marco Polo was born in 1254 in the Republic of Venice into a merchant family. His father, Niccolò Polo, and uncle, Maffeo Polo, were experienced traders who had already traveled to the Mongol Empire before Marco was born. Their journey to Kublai Khan’s court in China laid the foundation for Marco's future explorations.
At the time, Venice was a dominant trading power, engaged in commerce across the Mediterranean and beyond. However, Europeans had little firsthand knowledge of East Asia. Most information about China and the Mongols came through fragmented reports or secondhand stories.
The journey begins (1271)
In 1271, Marco Polo, aged 17, joined his father and uncle on their second journey to China. They carried letters and gifts from Pope Gregory X to Kublai Khan, the ruler of the Mongol Empire.
Route to China
The Polo family traveled overland, following key trade routes of the Silk Road:
Leaving Venice
Journey began in Venice, crossing the Mediterranean to the Middle East.
Through the Holy Land They passed through Acre (in modern Israel) and overland to Persia (Iran).
Across Persia They traveled through Tabriz and Hormuz, where they initially considered sailing to China but found the ships unsuitable.
Into Central Asia The Polos crossed the harsh deserts of Khorasan, Bactria (modern Afghanistan), and the Pamir Mountains.
Entering China After enduring the extreme climate of the Gobi Desert, they reached Kublai Khan's court in Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) around 1275.
Life in Kublai Khan’s court
Upon arriving, the Polos were warmly received by Kublai Khan, who had been eager to meet Europeans. Impressed by Marco Polo's intelligence, the Khan appointed him as a special envoy.
Roles and duties
He was sent on diplomatic missions to distant parts of the empire, including Burma, India, and possibly Vietnam.
He observed and documented China’s advanced technology, government, and infrastructure, including paper money, postal systems, and coal as a fuel source.
He described cities like Hangzhou as vast and wealthy, surpassing any European city of the time.
Kublai Khan grew fond of Marco and kept the Polos in his service for 16 years, reluctant to let them leave.
The journey back to Venice
After years of requesting permission to return home, the Polos were finally allowed to leave in 1291. They escorted a Mongol princess to Persia, traveling by sea.
Return route
By this time, Marco Polo had been away for 24 years. The Polos had become so unfamiliar to their fellow Venetians that their own relatives did not recognize them.
«I did not tell half of what I saw, for I knew I would not be believed.» Marco Polo Venetian explorer
Imprisonment
Shortly after his return, Venice went to war with Genoa. Marco Polo was captured during a naval battle in 1298 and imprisoned in Genoa.
While in prison, he met the writer Rustichello da Pisa, to whom he dictated his travel experiences. The resulting book, The Travels of Marco Polo, described the wealth, culture, and customs of the East.
Notable observations in the book
The great wealth of China, especially in cities like Quanzhou and Hangzhou.
The use of paper money, an unfamiliar concept in Europe.
The Mongols’ efficient postal system with relay stations across the empire.
Exotic animals, including crocodiles (which he mistook for serpents) and unicorn-like creatures (likely Indian rhinoceroses).
His admiration for Kublai Khan’s governance and tolerance toward different religions.
The book became widely read, though some dismissed its stories as exaggerations.
Later life and death
After being released from prison in 1299, Marco Polo returned to Venice. He became a wealthy merchant and married Donata Badoer, with whom he had three daughters.
Despite his fame, he never embarked on another major journey. Before his death in 1324, people urged him to admit that his book contained fabrications. His famous reply was:
«The people of this island have a custom of rubbing their houses all over with sandalwood and aloe wood, and this fragrance is so strong that it can be smelt far out to sea.» Marco Polo (1254 - 1324) Venetian explorer
Legacy of Marco Polo
Marco Polo's travels had a profound impact on Europe’s understanding of Asia.
To experience the life of Marco Polo, travelers can visit key locations that shaped his journey, from his Venetian origins to the lands he explored in Asia. Here are some must-visit places:
Venice, Italy – His birthplace and home
Marco Polo’s House (Corte del Milion) – The site where he lived, though the original structure no longer exists.
Doge’s Palace – Learn about Venetian trade and exploration during his time.
Museo Correr – Houses historical artifacts from Venice’s golden age.
Korčula, Croatia – The controversial birthplace
Marco Polo House – A museum in Korčula claims he was born here, despite most historians agreeing on Venice.
Old Town Korčula – A medieval Venetian town similar to what Marco Polo might have known.
Silk Road landmarks – Following his route
Acre, Israel – The Crusader port from which he started his journey.
Tabriz, Iran – A major Silk Road trading hub he visited.
Bukhara & Samarkand, Uzbekistan – Ancient cities with stunning Silk Road architecture.
Dunhuang, China – Famous for the Mogao Caves and desert landscapes.
China – The heart of his travels
Beijing (Khanbaliq) – Visit the remnants of Kublai Khan’s capital, including the Forbidden City (built later but in the same area).
Hangzhou – Described by Polo as the most magnificent city in the world.
Quanzhou – A key port Polo mentioned, still home to ancient maritime relics.
Return journey and legacy
Hormuz, Iran – Where Polo saw the Persian Gulf’s trade networks.
Constantinople (Istanbul, Turkey) – The gateway between East and West during his time.
Genoa, Italy – Where he was imprisoned and dictated The Travels of Marco Polo.
Museums dedicated to Marco Polo
Venice, Italy
Museo Correr – Houses maps and documents from Venice’s exploration era.
Palazzo Ducale (Doge’s Palace) – Showcases Venetian trade history, which Polo was part of.
Korčula, Croatia
Marco Polo House Museum – A small museum with exhibits about his life and travels.
Uzbekistan & the Silk Road
Samarkand’s Registan Square – Historic trade center with grand Islamic architecture.
Bukhara Ark Fortress Museum – Highlights the role of the Silk Road.
China
Beijing Capital Museum – Exhibits on the Mongol Empire and Yuan Dynasty.
Hangzhou Grand Canal Museum – Shows the wealth of the city Polo admired.
Quanzhou Maritime Museum – Explores the port Polo described as the busiest in the world.
Influence on exploration
The Travels of Marco Polo became one of the most influential books of the Middle Ages.
Christopher Columbus was inspired by Polo’s descriptions of China and carried a copy of his book on his voyage to the Americas.
European explorers used his accounts to plan their own journeys eastward.
Doubts and debates
Some scholars question whether Marco Polo reached all the places he claimed. Notably, he never mentioned significant Chinese customs like the Great Wall or chopsticks. However, many of his descriptions match historical records, supporting the authenticity of his travels.
Zheng He: The legendary admiral and explorer
Zheng He’s seven voyages (1405–1433) marked one of history’s most ambitious naval undertakings.
Below, we explore each aspect of his achievements, from his colossal fleet to the impact of his explorations, and the mystery of why China turned inward after his death.
Zheng He’s fleet: The largest in history
Zheng He’s armada was the largest fleet ever assembled until modern times. It included:
Treasure ships (baochuan): These were the largest, measuring up to 120m (390ft) long and 50m wide, making them four times the size of Christopher Columbus’ Santa María.
Troop transports: Carried thousands of soldiers.
Horse ships: Transported cavalry and tribute animals.
Supply ships: Brought food and water for long voyages.
Escort warships: Provided security against pirates and threats.
Fleet compare to European ships?
The sheer scale and organization of Zheng He’s fleet were unmatched. While European explorers sought new lands, Zheng He’s fleet was a floating empire, showcasing China’s naval power.
Key insights
Zheng He’s fleet was the largest and most advanced, capable of carrying thousands of crew members across the Indian Ocean.
Portuguese and Spanish ships were designed for global conquest and colonization, leading to European naval dominance.
Viking ships were incredibly fast and flexible, excelling in both river and sea travel but not built for deep-sea voyages.
Despite their differences, all three civilizations expanded the known world through trade, exploration, and military ventures.
«Zheng He commanded the greatest armada the world had ever seen, yet his voyages remain largely unknown outside China.» Gavin Menzies British author, 1421: The Year China Discovered America
«Zheng He’s fleets proved that China had the capability to dominate the world’s oceans long before the Europeans.» Joseph Needham British historian of Chinese science and civilization
The seven voyages and their key moments
First voyage (1405–1407) – Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka
Zheng He’s fleet set sail with 317 ships and 27,000 crew members.
Established Chinese authority in Southeast Asia, stopping in Java, Sumatra, and Vietnam.
Reached Sri Lanka, where he clashed with the local king but later secured diplomatic ties.
Second voyage (1407–1409) – Strengthening China’s influence
Focused on enforcing Chinese political control over Malacca and Sumatra.
Ensured that local rulers remained loyal to the Ming dynasty.
Third voyage (1409–1411) – India and the Persian Gulf
Visited Calicut (India), a major spice trade hub.
A conflict in Sri Lanka led to Zheng He capturing the local king, forcing him into
submission.
Fourth Voyage (1413–1415) – The Middle East
Reached Hormuz (Persian Gulf), where Zheng He witnessed the bustling Arabian trade network.
Established diplomatic ties with the Middle East.
Fifth voyage (1417–1419) – The first African contact
Arrived on the east coast of Africa (modern-day Kenya and Somalia).
Brought back giraffes, zebras, and ostriches to China.
Chinese court officials were fascinated by the giraffes, believing them to be mythical qilin creatures.
Sixth voyage (1421–1422) – Expanding influence
Revisited Africa and Arabia, strengthening trade and political alliances.
Some records suggest Zheng He may have visited Mecca, as he was Muslim.
Seventh voyage (1431–1433) – The last great wxpedition
Reaffirmed China’s presence in Southeast Asia, India, and Africa.
Soon after, Zheng He died at sea or shortly after returning to China.
Did he reach America or Australia?
There are controversial theories that Zheng He’s fleet may have reached Australia or even the Americas before Columbus:
Historian Gavin Menzies (1421: The Year China Discovered the World) claims that Zheng He’s fleet sailed to Australia and the Americas.
Menzies suggests Chinese maps show South America’s coastline decades before Columbus.
However, mainstream historians dismiss this theory, as there’s no concrete archaeological evidence of a Chinese presence in the Americas.
Although intriguing, Zheng He’s focus was on expanding China’s diplomatic and trade networks, not territorial exploration.
Why did China stop exploring after Zheng He?
Despite the incredible success of Zheng He’s voyages, China abandoned ocean exploration after his death. Why?
A new emperor was hostile to exploration
Emperor Yongle, who funded Zheng He’s expeditions, died in 1424.
His successor, Emperor Hongxi, opposed costly foreign adventures and suspended naval activity.
Internal political shifts
China’s Confucian bureaucracy viewed merchants and explorers as less important than agriculture and defense.
The scholars at court favored isolation over costly maritime expeditions. The cost was too high
The voyages were expensive, and China saw little material benefit from them.
The Great Wall and military defenses against the Mongols became a higher priority.
China destroyed its own Naval records
By 1479, all records of Zheng He’s voyages were deliberately destroyed.
Shipbuilding expertise was lost, and China banned ocean-going ships, effectively erasing centuries of naval dominance.
By the time European explorers like Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus arrived in Asia, China had retreated into isolation, leaving the door open for Western colonization.
Museums & monuments
China
Nanjing’s Treasure Shipyard – Visit the ruins where Zheng He’s massive treasure ships were built. A full-scale ship model is on display.
Zheng He Memorial Hall (Nanjing) – Located near the shipyard, it features artifacts from his voyages.
Quanzhou Maritime Museum – Showcases China’s ancient maritime trade and Zheng He’s role in global exploration.
Shanghai Maritime Museum – Features ship models and maritime maps from his time.
Southeast Asia
Cheng Ho Cultural Museum (Malacca, Malaysia) – Dedicated to Zheng He’s voyages and his influence in Malacca.
Cheng Hoon Teng Temple (Malacca) – A historic Chinese temple linked to early Chinese settlers, influenced by Zheng He’s travels.
Sam Po Kong Temple (Semarang, Indonesia) – Built in honor of Zheng He’s visit to Java, now a major pilgrimage site.
Other monuments
Zheng He Park (Kunming, China) – Features a statue and museum about his early life.
Zheng He Statue (Kuching, Malaysia) – Symbolizing his influence in Southeast Asia.
Experiencing his routes
Melaka River Cruise (Malaysia) – See the historic port city that Zheng He helped shape.
Traditional Junk Boat Ride (China) – Experience sailing on vessels similar to those used in the Ming era.
Following Zheng He’s voyage route
Indonesia (Java & Sumatra) – Explore ports where Zheng He established trade relations.
Sri Lanka (Galle Fort & Adam’s Peak) – He visited here and left inscriptions praising Buddha and local deities.
East Africa (Kenya, Lamu, Zanzibar) – Discover sites that showcase Chinese-African connections, including rumored shipwrecks of his fleet.
Zheng He’s legacy today
Influence on trade and diplomacy
Strengthened China’s presence in Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and Africa.
Helped develop Malacca (modern Malaysia) into a key global trading hub.
Inspiration for modern China
Today, China celebrates Zheng He as a symbol of international cooperation.
His expeditions are often cited in discussions about China’s Belt and Road Initiative, which seeks to rebuild old trade routes.
A reminder of lost potential
If China had continued its explorations, it might have discovered the Americas before Europe.
Instead, China turned inward, while European explorers reshaped global history.
Henry the navigator:
The patron of Portuguese exploration
Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) was a Portuguese prince who played a crucial role in the Age of Exploration, despite never sailing himself.
Through his sponsorship of voyages and development of navigation schools, he helped expand Portugal’s influence and laid the groundwork for future explorers like Vasco da Gama.
Early life and background
Born in 1394 in Porto, Portugal, Henry was the third son of King John I of Portugal and Philippa of Lancaster (daughter of England’s John of Gaunt). He was raised in a court that valued military strategy, trade, and diplomacy.
Henry’s interest in exploration began in 1415 when he took part in the conquest of Ceuta, a key North African trading port. This victory opened his eyes to the wealth of Africa and the potential of maritime trade.
«Henry the Navigator was less a navigator than an organizer, a man who gathered knowledge and talent to push Portugal to the forefront of discovery.» C.R. Boxer British historian of Portuguese exploration
The push for exploration
Unlike earlier European rulers who focused on overland trade, Henry sought new sea routes to Africa and beyond.
Reasons for exploration
To bypass overland routes controlled by Islamic powers.
To access gold, ivory, and slaves from Africa.
To spread Christianity and counter Islamic influence.
To find a possible sea route to India and Asia.
He founded a navigation school in Sagres, where he gathered cartographers, shipbuilders, and sailors to advance maritime knowledge.
Though Henry himself did not sail, he sponsored numerous expeditions along the West African coast.
Prince Henry the Navigator’s Expeditions (1415-1460)
Henry revolutionized European exploration without sailing himself, instead funding and training navigators.
His school of navigation improved maps, shipbuilding, and oceanic knowledge, paving the way for later global voyages.
Portuguese ships reached further than any Europeans before, setting the stage for the Age of Discovery.
Key expeditions
1418–1419: Madeira Islands discovered and settled.
1427: Azores Islands mapped and colonized.
1434: Cape Bojador (Sahara coast) successfully rounded by Gil Eanes, breaking superstitions about the «Sea of Darkness.»
1444: Portuguese explorers reached Senegal and Cape Verde, beginning the African slave trade.
1460: Portuguese ships reached Sierra Leone, but Henry died before further progress.
The caravel, a new type of ship designed under Henry’s direction, was crucial in making these voyages possible.
«Henry the Navigator set in motion the first organized European slave trade, shaping the course of history for centuries.» Hugh Thomas British historian, The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440-1870
«Henry’s voyages led not only to exploration but also to exploitation, laying the foundations of the European slave trade.» Anthony Reid British historian, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce
The legacy of Henry the navigator
Henry’s efforts transformed Portugal into a leading maritime power. His navigational advancements directly influenced later explorers like Bartolomeu Dias, who rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and Vasco da Gama, who reached India in 1498.
Impact on history
Established Portugal as a pioneer in oceanic exploration.
Opened Africa’s west coast to European trade.
Laid the foundation for the Atlantic slave trade.
Inspired the later Age of Discovery, which led to European colonial empires.
Though he never set sail himself, Henry’s vision changed the course of world history and set Europe on a path of global expansion.
Here are detailed experiences at key sites related to Henry the Navigator, offering an immersive journey into his life and influence:
Sagres, Portugal – The heart of exploration
Sagres Fortress
Walk through the walls of Henry’s legendary navigation school, where sailors learned cartography and shipbuilding.
Visit the giant wind compass (rosa dos ventos), thought to be used for training navigators.
Enjoy stunning views over the Atlantic, the same horizon Henry gazed upon while planning expeditions.
Cape St. Vincent
Stand at the southwesternmost tip of Europe, once believed to be the «end of the world.»
Experience powerful ocean winds and breathtaking sunsets over the Atlantic.
Visit the lighthouse, guiding ships on the same routes Henry’s explorers once took.
Lagos, Portugal – Gateway to Africa
Explore the docks where Henry’s ships set sail toward Africa.
Join a boat tour along the Algarve coast, tracing the first expeditions launched under his command.
Slave Market Museum (Mercado de Escravos)
Visit Europe’s first slave market, established in 1444 under Henry’s sponsorship.
Learn about the tragic side of the Age of discovery, with exhibits on early African trade and colonial impact.
Porto, Portugal – Early fife & templar Influence
Monastery of Leça do Balio
Discover the medieval monastery where Henry’s parents were married.
Explore Templar and religious influences that shaped Henry’s vision of conquest and Christian expansion.
Lisbon, Portugal – Monumental tributes
Jerónimos Monastery
Visit this UNESCO World Heritage site, built to honor Portugal’s explorers.
Admire Manueline architecture, inspired by the riches of overseas voyages.
Padrão dos Descobrimentos (Monument to the Discoveries)
See Henry the Navigator standing at the front of Portugal’s greatest explorers in this riverside monument.
Climb to the viewing platform for a panoramic look at the Tagus River, once filled with departing caravels.
Madeira & Azores – Islands of discovery
Visit Madeira, discovered under Henry’s patronage, with its wine culture and lush landscapes.
Explore Azores, a strategic point in Atlantic navigation, still rich in volcanic scenery and historic settlements.
Experience Henry’s legacy today?
Take a guided historical tour in Portugal focused on the Age of Discovery.
Visit nautical museums in Lisbon and Lagos to see ancient maps, ship models, and navigation tools.
Try sailing on a replica caravel, the ship type used during Henry’s expeditions.
Christopher Columbus: The navigator of the New World
Under the patronage of Spain, Columbus set sail in 1492 in search of a westward route to Asia. Instead, he reached the Bahamas, later exploring the Caribbean, Central America, and South America.
Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was an Italian explorer whose voyages across the Atlantic Ocean led to the European discovery of the Americas. Sponsored by Spain, he made four expeditions to the New World, believing he had found a new route to Asia. His journeys changed world history, marking the beginning of European colonization in the Americas.
«Columbus is a symbol of the adventurous spirit, but also of the harsh consequences of conquest.» José Martí Cuban National hero and writer
Believing he had found the Indies, he mistakenly called the indigenous people “Indians.” His voyages initiated European colonization of the Americas, though they also led to the exploitation of native populations.
Early life and background
Columbus was born in 1451 in Genoa, a maritime republic in modern-day Italy. He grew up near the sea, learning navigation and mapmaking.
As a young man, he worked on merchant ships traveling the Mediterranean and along the African coast. He became fascinated with the idea of reaching Asia by sailing westward across the Atlantic, inspired by Marco Polo and contemporary geographic theories.
By the late 1400s, European nations were searching for alternative trade routes to Asia due to the Ottoman control of key land routes.
Columbus’ plan and sponsorship
Columbus believed the Earth was smaller than most scholars estimated, leading him to propose sailing west to reach Asia. However, his calculations were incorrect—he underestimated the size of the planet and the vast Pacific Ocean.
He sought funding for his expedition from Portugal, England, and France, but they rejected his plan. Eventually, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain agreed to support him.
In 1492, they provided ships and funding, hoping his journey would bring wealth and spread Christianity.
Fleet for the First Voyage
Santa María – The largest ship, commanded by Columbus.
Pinta – A smaller, fast caravel.
Niña – A nimble caravel, later Columbus' flagship.
First Voyage (1492–1493) - Reaching the New World
Columbus set sail from Spain on August 3, 1492, heading west across the Atlantic.
Key stops and discoveries
Canary Islands – Last European stop before heading west.
Bahamas (October 12, 1492) – Landed on an island he named San Salvador.
Cuba and Hispaniola – Explored the Caribbean, believing he was near Asia.
Columbus encountered indigenous peoples, whom he called «Indians» thinking he had reached the East Indies.
He built the first European settlement in the Americas, La Navidad, on the island of Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic).
After losing the Santa María to a reef, he returned to Spain in March 1493, bringing gold, exotic animals, and captives.
Second Voyage (1493–1496): Colonization begins
Encouraged by his success, Spain sent Columbus back with a larger fleet—17 ships and over 1,000 settlers.
New discoveries
Dominica, Guadeloupe, and Puerto Rico – First European sightings.
Hispaniola – Found La Navidad destroyed; founded a new colony, La Isabela.
Jamaica – Explored, but did not establish a settlement.
His attempts to govern the colony were marked by conflict with both the indigenous people and Spanish settlers. He was criticized for harsh rule and poor leadership.
Third Voyage (1498–1500): South America discovered
On his third voyage, Columbus explored further south.
New discoveries
Trinidad and Venezuela – First European sighting of mainland South America.
When he returned to Hispaniola, he found Spanish settlers in revolt due to his mismanagement. Spain sent an envoy, who arrested Columbus and sent him back to Spain in chains. Although he was freed, his reputation was damaged.
Fourth Voyage (1502–1504): Final journey
Determined to find a passage to Asia, Columbus set sail again, but this journey was disastrous.
Challenges and discoveries
Central America – Explored parts of Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama.
Marooned in Jamaica – Stranded for a year after shipwrecks, relying on indigenous peoples for survival.
He returned to Spain in 1504, ill and without royal support.
«What we committed in the Indies stands out among the most unpardonable offenses ever committed against God and mankind, and this in the name of Christianity.» Bartolomé de las Casas Spanish historian and missionary
Legacy of Christopher Columbus
Impact on the World
Opened the Americas to European exploration and colonization.
Started the transatlantic exchange of goods, animals, plants, and diseases (Columbian Exchange).
Led to the Spanish Empire’s expansion in the New World.
Controversies
Enslaved indigenous peoples and imposed harsh rule.
His arrival led to the decline of native civilizations due to disease and violence.
Despite the controversy, Columbus remains a key figure in world history.
Places to visit
If you want to follow in Christopher Columbus’s footsteps, there are many historical sites connected to his life and voyages. From his birthplace in Genoa to his final resting place in Seville, these locations offer a deeper understanding of his journeys, discoveries, and legacy.
Columbus’ early life in Italy
Genoa, Italy – Columbus’ Birthplace
Columbus was born in 1451 in Genoa, a major maritime city. Today, visitors can explore:
Casa di Colombo (Columbus’ House) – A reconstructed medieval house believed to be his birthplace.
Galata Museo del Mare – Italy’s largest maritime museum, featuring exhibitions on Columbus and exploration.
Port of Genoa – The harbor that shaped his early experiences at sea.
Spain: Where Columbus set sail
Palos de la Frontera
The small town in southern Spain where Columbus set sail in 1492. Key sites include:
La Rábida Monastery – Where Columbus planned his voyage and received support from Spanish monks.
Muelle de las Carabelas – A museum featuring full-scale replicas of the Niña, Pinta, and Santa María.
Seville Columbus spent time in Seville, where his voyages were organized. Key locations:
Seville Cathedral – Houses Columbus’ tomb, though his remains have a disputed history.
Archivo de Indias – Holds documents from Spain’s Age of Exploration.
Barcelona
Columbus was received by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella in Barcelona after his first voyage. The Plaça del Rei marks the site where he reported his discoverie
San Salvador, Bahamas
On October 12, 1492, Columbus made landfall here, believing he had reached Asia. You can visit:
Landfall Park – A monument marking where Columbus first stepped ashore.
Long Bay – A scenic beach near the landing site.
Hispaniola (Dominican Republic & Haiti)
Columbus established settlements on Hispaniola, including:
La Isabela (Dominican Republic) – The ruins of the first European settlement in the Americas.
Santo Domingo – Home to the Columbus Lighthouse (Faro a Colón), a mausoleum that allegedly holds his remains.
«To emphasize the heroism of Columbus and his successors as navigators and discoverers, and to de-emphasize their genocide, is not a technical necessity but an ideological choice.» Howard Zinn American historian, A People's History of the United States
Later voyages & new discoveries
Puerto Rico
On his second voyage, Columbus landed in Puerto Rico, naming it San Juan Bautista.
Visit San Juan – The historic city Columbus named, now featuring colonial forts and UNESCO sites.
Trinidad & Venezuela
During his third voyage, Columbus became the first European to see the mainland of South America. You can visit:
Columbus Bay, Trinidad – A coastal area named after his landing.
Paria Peninsula, Venezuela – Where Columbus first saw the South American continent.
Jamaica On his fourth voyage, Columbus was stranded here for a year. Sites include:
Discovery Bay – The spot where Columbus landed in 1494.
St. Ann’s Bay – Where he was marooned with his crew in 1503–1504.
The end of his journey
Valladolid, Spain
Columbus died in Valladolid in 1506. His house is now a museum:
Casa de Colón – Showcasing Columbus’ final days and his impact on Spain.
Final resting place: Where is Columbus buried?
Columbus’ remains have been moved multiple times. You can visit:
Seville Cathedral, Spain – A grand tomb claimed to hold his bones.
Columbus Lighthouse, Dominican Republic – Another claimed burial site.
Valladolid, Spain – Where he died.
Museums and monuments worldwide
United States
Columbus’ legacy is honored in many American cities:
Washington, D.C. – The Columbus Fountain at Union Station.
New York City – Columbus Circle, featuring a large statue.
San Juan, Puerto Rico – Plaza Colón, a historic square with a Columbus statue.
Cuba
Baracoa – The first Spanish settlement in Cuba, visited by Columbus.
Portugal
Although Columbus was Italian, some believe he had Portuguese connections.
Sites include:
Lisbon – Home to the Padrão dos Descobrimentos, a monument to explorers.
Madeira & Azores – Islands Columbus visited before and after his voyages.
Vasco da Gama: Connected Europe and Asia by sea
Vasco da Gama (c. 1460–1524) was a Portuguese explorer who became the first European to reach India by sea, establishing a direct maritime route between Europe and Asia.
His voyages marked the beginning of Portugal’s dominance in the Indian Ocean and reshaped global trade and exploration.
Early life and background
Vasco da Gama was born around 1460 in Sines, Portugal, into a noble family. His father, Estêvão da Gama, was a minor noble and a commander of the local fortress. Growing up in a Portugal that was actively expanding its maritime power, Vasco da Gama was well-versed in navigation and military strategy.
By the late 15th century, Portugal had been exploring the west coast of Africa, aiming to find a sea route to India and bypass the land routes controlled by Muslim empires. King Manuel I of Portugal chose Vasco da Gama to lead the expedition that would finally achieve this goal.
The first Voyage to India (1497–1499)
On July 8, 1497, Vasco da Gama set sail from Lisbon with four ships: the São Gabriel, the São Rafael, the Berrio, and a supply ship. His journey followed the pioneeriááng route established by Bartolomeu Dias, who had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488.
Route to India
Cape Verde Islands - The fleet stopped here for supplies.
The South Atlantic route – Instead of hugging the African coast, they sailed far into the Atlantic to catch favorable winds, a maneuver known as the «volta do mar.»
Rounding the Cape of Good Hope – In November 1497, they successfully rounded Africa’s southern tip.
East Africa – They stopped in present-day Mozambique, Mombasa, and Malindi, where they secured the help of a local pilot, possibly an Indian navigator.
Arrival in India – On May 20, 1498, Vasco da Gama reached Calicut (modern Kozhikode, India), a major trading port ruled by the Zamorin (local ruler).
Encounters in India At first, Vasco da Gama was welcomed, but tensions arose when he failed to present valuable gifts. Arab and Muslim traders, who dominated the Indian Ocean trade, saw the Portuguese as rivals and opposed their presence. After securing a trade agreement, da Gama returned to Portugal in 1499, but he lost many crew members to disease.
Upon his return, he was celebrated as a hero, and King Manuel I rewarded him with wealth and titles.
Second Voyage and establishing Portuguese dominance (1502–1503)
In 1502, Vasco da Gama led a second, more aggressive expedition to India, determined to establish Portuguese control over the lucrative spice trade.
Key events of the second Voyage:
Brutal attacks on Arab traders – To secure Portuguese dominance, da Gama attacked Arab merchant ships. One infamous event was the massacre of the Miri, a ship carrying hundreds of Muslim pilgrims, including women and children, whom da Gama burned alive.
Bombardment of Calicut – To force the Zamorin into submission, he bombarded Calicut and killed hostages.
Portuguese Forts in India – He helped establish a Portuguese stronghold in Cochin, beginning Portugal’s colonial rule in the region.
This ruthless campaign ensured Portuguese control of the Indian Ocean trade routes.
Later years and third Voyage (1524)
After his successful voyages, da Gama remained an influential figure in Portugal. However, in 1524, King John III sent him back to India as viceroy to control the growing corruption among Portuguese officials.
Final days
He arrived in Cochin in late 1524 but fell ill soon after.
On December 24, 1524, Vasco da Gama died in Cochin.
His remains were later transported back to Portugal and buried in the Jerónimos Monastery in Lisbon.
Legacy of Vasco da Gama
Impact on Global trade
His voyages established a direct sea route between Europe and India, cutting out Middle Eastern and Venetian merchants.
Portugal became a dominant colonial power in Asia, controlling key trade ports in India, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Brutality and controversy
While celebrated in Portugal as a hero, Vasco da Gama’s actions were marked by violence. His massacres, forced conversions, and attacks on non-Portuguese traders left a dark legacy, especially in India and the Middle East.
Exploration and influence
His achievements paved the way for future Portuguese explorers, including Afonso de Albuquerque and Ferdinand Magellan.
The sea route to India changed global commerce, leading to European colonization in Asia.
Experience the life of Vasco da Gama
Portugal
Belém, Lisbon – Visit the Jerónimos Monastery, where Vasco da Gama is buried. The monastery was built to commemorate his voyages. Nearby, see the Belém Tower, a symbol of Portugal’s Age of Discovery.
Sines – Vasco da Gama’s birthplace. Visit the Castle of Sines, where he spent his early years.
Sagres – Home to the Fortaleza de Sagres and Henry the Navigator's School of Navigation, which influenced Vasco da Gama’s training.
Lagos – The port city from where many Portuguese explorers, including da Gama, set sail. The Mercado de Escravos, Europe’s first slave market, is a somber reminder of the darker aspects of exploration.
India
Kozhikode (Calicut) – The city where Vasco da Gama first landed in India in 1498. Kappad Beach, where he came ashore, and the Calicut Pazhassi Raja Museum to learn about local history.
Cochin (Kochi) – Vasco da Gama died here in 1524. His original tomb was in St. Francis Church, though his remains were later moved to Lisbon. Fort Kochi still has traces of Portuguese influence.
Kannur – See St. Angelo Fort, a Portuguese-built fort from the early 1500s.
Africa
Cape Verde – The Portuguese used these islands as a stopping point on their voyages.
Mombasa, Kenya - Visit Fort Jesus, built after Vasco da Gama’s voyages, and the Vasco da Gama Pillar in Malindi, which he erected in 1498.
Mozambique Island - A former Portuguese trading post. The Fort of São Sebastião and Chapel of Nossa Senhora de Baluarte are among the oldest European structures in Africa.
John Cabot: The first European since the Vikings
John Cabot (c. 1450–1499) was an Italian explorer who sailed under the English flag and is credited with the European discovery of North America’s mainland.
His voyages laid the foundation for England’s later claims to the New World and played a crucial role in the Age of Exploration.
John Cabot is undoubtedly an important figure in the history of exploration, but his overall significance is often overshadowed by explorers like Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Ferdinand Magellan, who had a more direct and lasting impact on global trade and colonization.
Early life and background
John Cabot was born as Giovanni Caboto around 1450 in Genoa or Gaeta, Italy. He later moved to Venice, where he gained citizenship in 1476. As a merchant and navigator, he became familiar with maritime trade routes, including those leading to the eastern Mediterranean.
By the late 15th century, European explorers were searching for new trade routes to Asia. Inspired by Christopher Columbus, Cabot sought royal support to find a western route across the Atlantic. He moved to England and gained the backing of King Henry VII, securing a patent in 1496 to explore new lands for the English crown.
The first voyage (1496)
Cabot’s first attempt to sail west in 1496 ended in failure due to bad weather and insufficient supplies. He returned to England without making any discoveries, but this did not deter him from trying again.
The second voyage and discovery of North America (1497)
On May 2, 1497, Cabot departed from Bristol on his second voyage.
John Cabot sailed to North America in 1497 aboard the Matthew, a small but sturdy caravel. The ship, likely around 50 tons, carried a crew of about 20 men. While details of his other vessels remain uncertain, some theories suggest he may have led a second voyage in 1498 with a fleet of five ships, though their fate remains unknown.
Route and landfall
Departure from Bristol – The expedition set sail westward across the North Atlantic.
Landfall in North America – On June 24, 1497, Cabot sighted land, likely in present-day Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island, Canada.
Exploration and Claims – Cabot explored the coastline, planted the English flag, and claimed the land for Henry VII.
Unlike Columbus, who encountered established civilizations, Cabot found little evidence of human settlement.
He believed he had reached Asia, but he had actually discovered the North American mainland.
Return to England
Cabot returned to England in August 1497, where he was celebrated as a hero. He reported vast fisheries and potential riches, encouraging further exploration.
The mysterious third voyage (1498)
In 1498, Cabot set out on a larger expedition with five ships and 200 men, aiming to explore further west. However, the fate of this voyage remains unclear.
Possible outcomes
Some reports suggest Cabot reached North America but perished on the return journey.
Other theories propose that his fleet was lost at sea or that he may have sailed as far south as the Chesapeake Bay.
No confirmed records of his later life or death exist.
Legacy of John Cabot
Impact on England’s exploration:
Cabot’s voyages gave England its first claim to North America, influencing later explorers like Sebastian Cabot (his son) and Henry Hudson.
His discoveries laid the groundwork for England’s eventual colonization efforts in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Controversy and debate:
There is ongoing debate over the exact landing site of his 1497 voyage, with Newfoundland, Labrador, and Cape Breton all considered possibilities.
Unlike Columbus, Cabot received less recognition due to England’s later entry into the colonial race.
Experience his life
Bristol, England
Cabot’s 1497 voyage to North America departed from Bristol, making the city an essential place to visit.
Cabot Tower – Built in 1897 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of his journey, this tower in Brandon Hill Park offers panoramic views.
Bristol Harbour – The historic port from where Cabot set sail.
M Shed Museum – Features exhibits on Bristol’s maritime history, including Cabot’s role.
Venice, Italy
Cabot was originally from Venice, and his time there influenced his navigation skills.
Doge’s Palace – Cabot gained Venetian citizenship in 1476, and this historic building gives insight into the power structure of the time.
Rialto area – The center of Venetian trade during Cabot’s time, where he would have learned about commerce and navigation.
Newfoundland, Canada
Cabot is believed to have landed on the coast of Newfoundland in 1497.
Cape Bonavista – A key site where some believe Cabot first set foot in North America.
The Rooms (St. John’s) – A museum with exhibits on Newfoundland’s early European exploration.
Replica of the Matthew – In Bonavista, visitors can see a reconstruction of Cabot’s ship.
Gaeta, Italy
Cabot spent part of his later years in Gaeta, a coastal town south of Rome, where he was involved in maritime projects.
Ferdinand Magellan: Led the first circumnavigation
Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480–1521) was a Portuguese explorer whose expedition achieved the first circumnavigation of the Earth.
Though he did not survive the journey, his leadership and navigational skills changed world history by proving that the globe could be sailed around entirely.
Early life and background
Born in Sabrosa, Portugal, around 1480, Magellan grew up in a noble family and was trained in navigation and seamanship from a young age. As a teenager, he joined the Portuguese fleet and took part in expeditions to India, Malacca (Malaysia), and the Moluccas (Spice Islands), where he gained valuable knowledge of Asian trade routes.
After a falling out with the Portuguese king, Magellan offered his services to Spain, which agreed to sponsor his ambitious plan to reach the Spice Islands by sailing west, avoiding the route controlled by Portugal.
Challenges he faced
Magellan's journey was filled with extreme hardships, both at sea and on land:
Mutiny: Some of his Spanish captains resented his Portuguese leadership and tried to overthrow him.
Harsh conditions: His fleet endured starvation, scurvy, and extreme cold while crossing the Pacific.
Uncharted Waters: Navigating through the Strait of Magellan was extremely dangerous.
Conflict with Indigenous Peoples: He was ultimately killed in the Philippines during a battle with local warriors.
Despite these challenges, his expedition continued under Juan Sebastián Elcano, completing the first circumnavigation of the world in 1522.
Major voyages and discoveries
The voyage around the World (1519–1522)
Magellan set sail from Seville, Spain, on September 20, 1519, with five ships and around 270 men.
Key moments of the journey:
December 1519: Reached the coast of South America and explored Rio de la Plata.
October 1520: Discovered and navigated the Strait of Magellan, the treacherous passage at the southern tip of South America.
November 1520: Entered the Pacific Ocean, naming it «Mar Pacífico» (peaceful sea).
March 1521: Reached the Philippines, where he converted local rulers to Christianity.
April 27, 1521: Killed in the Battle of Mactan by the forces of Lapu-Lapu.
September 1522: The surviving ship, Victoria, led by Elcano, returned to Spain, completing the first circumnavigation.
The legacy of Ferdinand Magellan
Magellan’s expedition changed history by proving that:
The world is round and can be fully circumnavigated.
The Pacific Ocean is vast, much larger than previously believed.
A westward route to the Spice Islands was possible, influencing later European exploration.
Though Magellan did not survive, his name became synonymous with bravery, navigation, and exploration.
Experience his life and legacy today
Portugal
Sabrosa, Portugal: Magellan’s birthplace has a small museum dedicated to him.
Lisbon Maritime Museum: Displays historical maps and models of Magellan’s ships.
Spain
Seville, Spain: The departure point of Magellan’s voyage. Visit the Archivo de Indias, where original documents from the expedition are preserved.
Sanlúcar de Barrameda: The town where the fleet set sail into the Atlantic.
Argentina & Chile
Strait of Magellan: A legendary passage that still bears his name. Cruises and historical tours are available.
Punta Arenas, Chile: A major gateway for exploring the strait. A statue of Magellan stands in the main square.
Philippines
Mactan Shrine, Cebu: A monument at the site where Magellan was killed in battle.
Magellan’s Cross, Cebu City: A Christian cross planted by Magellan upon arriving in the Philippines.
Around the World
Replica of the Victoria: Some museums, including the Maritime Museum in Seville, feature replicas of Magellan’s surviving ship.
Hernán Cortés: Toppled the Aztec empire
Hernán Cortés (1485–1547) was a Spanish conquistador best known for leading the expedition that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire and the establishment of Spanish rule in Mexico.
His conquest of Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, changed the course of history, marking the beginning of European dominance in the Americas.
Early Life and Background
Born in Medellín, Spain, in 1485, Cortés came from a lesser noble family. He studied law briefly at the University of Salamanca before leaving for the New World in 1504.
He first settled in Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti) and later participated in the conquest of Cuba, where he became a wealthy landowner. However, his ambition led him to seek greater glory, convincing Governor Diego Velázquez to fund an expedition to Mexico in 1519.
Challenges he faced
Cortés encountered numerous obstacles on his path to conquest:
Defying Authority: He launched his expedition against the orders of Governor Velázquez, effectively making him a rebel.
Hostile Indigenous Forces: Many tribes opposed the Spanish and fought back.
Aztec Resistance: The Aztecs, under Montezuma II, were a powerful empire with vast armies.
Smallpox Epidemic: While disease weakened the indigenous population, it also created unpredictable consequences for Cortés’s alliances.
Internal Conflicts: He had to suppress a Spanish-led mutiny and fend off a rival expedition from Cuba.
Despite these challenges, Cortés’s military strategy, alliances with local tribes, and the spread of European diseases helped him conquer Mexico.
The conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521)
Key events in the conquest
1519: Landed on the coast of Veracruz, burning his ships to prevent retreat.
Alliances: Formed partnerships with local enemies of the Aztecs, including the Tlaxcalans.
November 1519: Entered Tenochtitlán and took Montezuma II hostage.
June 1520 (La Noche Triste): Spanish forces were driven out of Tenochtitlán after Montezuma’s death. Many Spaniards were killed.
August 1521: After regrouping, Cortés and his allies besieged Tenochtitlán. The city fell after months of fighting, marking the end of the Aztec Empire.
Cortés declared Mexico a Spanish territory, later renamed New Spain.
The legacy of Hernán Cortés
Cortés’s conquest shaped the history of Latin America and the world. His actions led to:
The collapse of the Aztec civilization and the rise of Spanish rule in Mexico.
The introduction of European culture, language, and religion to the region.
The rapid expansion of the Spanish Empire across the Americas.
Controversy—while seen as a brilliant strategist, Cortés is also regarded as a brutal conqueror responsible for mass deaths and destruction.
Experience his life and legacy today
Spain
Medellín, Spain: Cortés’s birthplace features a museum and statue dedicated to him.
Archivo General de Indias, Seville: Houses original documents related to the conquest of Mexico.
Mexico
Mexico City: Built over the ruins of Tenochtitlán, with sites like the Templo Mayor Museum, which preserves Aztec artifacts.
Veracruz: The place where Cortés first landed in Mexico.
Tlaxcala: A city that allied with Cortés, home to colonial-era buildings and indigenous history.
Coyoacán, Mexico City: The Casa de Cortés, believed to have been one of his residences.
Cuba
Santiago de Cuba: Where Cortés prepared his expedition before sailing to Mexico.
Sir Francis Drake: Privateer and circumnavigator
Drake became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe (1577-1580), raiding Spanish ships along the way.
A favorite of Queen Elizabeth I, he played a key role in defeating the Spanish Armada in 1588.
Born: c. 1540, Tavistock, Devon, England Died: January 28, 1596, Portobelo, Panama Nationality: English
Major expeditions
First Englishman to circumnavigate the globe (1577–1580)
Raided Spanish settlements in the Americas, earning a reputation as a privateer
Played a key role in defeating the Spanish Armada in 1588
Legacy
Knighted by Queen Elizabeth I aboard his ship, the Golden Hind
Expanded England’s naval dominance and exploration
Accused of piracy by Spain but celebrated as a hero in England
Where to experience his legacy:
Golden Hinde, London – A full-scale replica of his famous ship
Plymouth, England – Home to the Drake statue and historical sites related to his voyages
Portobelo, Panama – The site of his burial at sea, with historical ruins linked to his last expedition
Sir Walter Raleigh: The pioneer of English colonization
Raleigh helped establish England’s first colonies in North America, including the ill-fated Roanoke settlement.
Though he never found the mythical El Dorado, his expeditions laid the foundation for future English colonization.
Born: c. 1552, Hayes Barton, Devon, England
Died: October 29, 1618, London, England (executed)
Nationality: English
Major expeditions
Explored the Americas and attempted to establish the Roanoke Colony (1585) in present-day North Carolina
Searched for the legendary city of El Dorado in South America (1595)
Fought against the Spanish and played a role in England’s naval dominance
Legacy
Introduced tobacco and potatoes to England (though this is debated)
Wrote extensively about his travels and experiences
Fell out of favor with King James I and was imprisoned in the Tower of London before being executed
Experience his legacy
Tower of London, England The site of his imprisonment and execution
Raleigh, North Carolina, USA Named in his honor, with museums dedicated to early English exploration
The Lost Colony Site, Roanoke Island, USA Archaeological remains and a historical reenactment of the failed Roanoke settlement
James Cook: The cartographer of the Pacific
Captain James Cook mapped vast regions of the Pacific, discovering Hawaii, charting New Zealand, and making the first recorded European contact with Australia’s east coast.
His precision in navigation revolutionized cartography.
Born: October 27, 1728, Marton, England Died: February 14, 1779, Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii Nationality: British Major Expeditions
Led three voyages to the Pacific, mapping large parts of Australia, New Zealand, and the Hawaiian Islands
First European to make contact with the east coast of Australia (1770)
Circumnavigated and mapped New Zealand (1769–1770)
Searched for the Northwest Passage on his final voyage before being killed in Hawaii
Legacy
Created some of the most accurate maps of the Pacific
Expanded European knowledge of Oceania and the indigenous cultures of the region
His voyages influenced later British colonization and exploration
Experience his legacy
Captain Cook Memorial Museum, Whitby, England – Displays artifacts and maps from his voyages
Australian National Maritime Museum, Sydney, Australia – Features exhibits on Cook’s journey and the Indigenous response
Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii – The site of his death, with a memorial marking the location
Te Papa Museum, Wellington, New Zealand – Showcases Cook’s impact on Māori culture and navigation
